The Concept "Reference Groups" Can Be Defined as:

The Nature of Groups

A social group is two or more humans who interact with 1 some other, share like characteristics, and collectively accept a sense of unity.

Learning Objectives

Contrast the social cohesion-based concept of a social group with the social identity concept

Key Takeaways

Primal Points

• A social grouping exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals.
• Social cohesion tin be formed through shared interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties, among other factors.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the sensation that an individual belongs and is recognized every bit a member of a grouping.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient weather condition for the formation of social groups is the awareness that the individual belongs and is recognized equally a member of a grouping.

Key Terms

• social grouping: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, collaborate with one another, take expectations and obligations as members of the grouping, and share a common identity.
• The social identity approach: Posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of social groups is awareness of a mutual category membership.
• The social cohesion approach: More than a uncomplicated collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus stop, or people waiting in a line.

In the social sciences, a social group is ii or more humans who interact with i another, share similar characteristics, and have a collective sense of unity. This is a very broad definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies. A society can be viewed as a large group, though most social groups are considerably smaller. Society can also exist viewed equally people who collaborate with i some other, sharing similarities pertaining to culture and territorial boundaries.

A social grouping exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a unproblematic drove or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a bus end or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared by members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social groundwork, and kinship ties. 1 style of determining if a collection of people can be considered a group is if individuals who belong to that collection apply the cocky-referent pronoun "we;" using "we" to refer to a drove of people oft implies that the collection thinks of itself as a group. Examples of groups include: families, companies, circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and local religious congregations.

Renowned social psychologist Muzafer Sherif formulated a technical definition of a social group. It is a social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:

1. common motives and goals;
2. an accepted division of labor;
3. established status relationships;
4. accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the group; and
5. the evolution of accustomed sanctions, such every bit raise and punishment, when norms were respected or violated.

Explicitly contrasted with a social cohesion-based definition for social groups is the social identity perspective, which draws on insights made in social identity theory. The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient atmospheric condition for the germination of social groups is "sensation of a common category membership" and that a social group tin can be "usefully conceptualized as a number of individuals who have internalized the same social category membership equally a component of their cocky concept. " Stated otherwise, while the social cohesion approach expects group members to inquire "who am I attracted to? " the social identity perspective expects group members to simply enquire "who am I? "

Social Identity Approach: The explanatory profiles of social identity and cocky-categorization theories.

Law Enforcement Officials: A law enforcement official is a social category, non a group. Nonetheless, police force enforcement officials who all piece of work in the aforementioned station and regularly meet to plan their twenty-four hours and work together would be considered part of a group.

Primary Groups

A primary group is typically a small social group whose members share shut, personal, enduring relationships.

Learning Objectives

List at to the lowest degree three defining characteristics of a primary grouping

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Primary groups are marked by concern for ane another, shared activities and civilization, and long periods of fourth dimension spent together. They are psychologically comforting and quite influential in developing personal identity.
• Families and close friends are examples of master groups.
• The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose.
• The concept of the primary group was introduced past Charles Cooley in his volume, Social Organization : A Report of the Larger Heed.

Key Terms

• Close friends: They are examples of primary groups.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one some other.
• relationship: Connection or association; the status of beingness related.

Sociologists distinguish between two types of groups based upon their characteristics. A principal group is typically a minor social group whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked by business for 1 another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together. The goal of primary groups is really the relationships themselves rather than achieving another purpose. Families and close friends are examples of main groups.

Charles Cooley

The concept of the primary group was introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of sociology, in his book Social System: A Study of the Larger Mind (1909). Primary groups play an of import function in the development of personal identity. Cooley argued that the impact of the master group is so great that individuals cling to primary ideals in more complex associations and even create new master groupings within formal organizations. To that extent, he viewed society as a abiding experiment in enlarging social feel and in coordinating variety. He, therefore, analyzed the operation of such complex social forms as formal institutions and social class systems and the subtle controls of public opinion.

Functions of Primary Groups

A primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit items, such as dear, caring, business, support, etc. Examples of these would be family groups, love relationships, crunch back up groups, and church groups. Relationships formed in primary groups are ofttimes long lasting and goals in themselves. They also are often psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and provide a source of back up and encouragement.

Charles Cooley: The concept of the primary grouping was introduced by Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago Schoolhouse of sociology, in his book, "Social Organization: A Written report of the Larger Mind" (1909).

Families as Social Groups: This family from the 1970s would be an example of a primary group.

Secondary Groups

Secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented; their relationships are temporary.

Learning Objectives

Outline the main distinctions between primary and secondary groups

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The distinction betwixt primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He termed them "secondary" because they generally develop later in life and are much less probable to be influential on one'southward identity than primary groups.
• Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal cognition of i another. In dissimilarity to chief groups, secondary groups don't have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.
• Secondary groups include groups in which one exchanges explicit bolt, such every bit labor for wages, services for payments, and such. They also include university classes, able-bodied teams, and groups of co-workers.

Primal Terms

• master group: Information technology is typically a small social grouping whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships. These groups are marked past concern for one some other, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to i another.
• Secondary groups: They are big groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented.

Unlike first groups, secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented. People in a secondary group interact on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are by and large temporary rather than long lasting. Some secondary groups may last for many years, though most are short term. Such groups likewise begin and end with very fiddling significance in the lives of the people involved.

Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of ane another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don't accept the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.

Charles Cooley

The distinction betwixt chief and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He labeled groups every bit "principal" because people oft experience such groups early in their life and such groups play an important role in the evolution of personal identity. Secondary groups generally develop later on in life and are much less likely to be influential on one's identity.

Functions

Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, people'south roles are more interchangeable. A secondary group is one you have called to be a part of. They are based on interests and activities. They are where many people can meet close friends or people they would just call acquaintances. Secondary groups are also groups in which ane exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, etc. Examples of these would be employment, vendor-to-customer relationships, a medico, a mechanic, an accountant, and such. A university form, an athletic team, and workers in an office all likely form secondary groups. Primary groups can form within secondary groups as relationships get more personal and close.

Classmates as Secondary Groups: A class of students is generally considered a secondary group.

Doctors as Secondary Groups: The doctor-patient human relationship is some other example of secondary groups.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-groups are social groups to which an individual feels he or she belongs, while an private doesn't identify with the out-grouping.

Learning Objectives

Think two of the key features of in-group biases toward out-groups

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• In- group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for ane's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their group is superior.
• Intergroup aggression is whatsoever behavior intended to harm another person, considering he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior existence viewed by its targets as undesirable.
• The out-grouping homogeneity effect is one'south perception of out-group members every bit more like to i another than are in-group members (due east.yard., "they are alike; we are various").
• Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a singled-out group, based solely on their membership within that group.
• A stereotype is a generalization about a grouping of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation amidst the members.

Central Terms

• in-group bias: It refers to a preference and affinity for one'due south in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• Intergroup aggression: It is any beliefs intended to harm another person because he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior beingness viewed past its targets as undesirable.
• In-group favoritism: It refers to a preference and affinity for one's in-group over the out-grouping, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources and many other ways.

In sociology and social psychology, in-groups and out-groups are social groups to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs every bit a member, or towards which they experience contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete, respectively. People tend to hold positive attitudes towards members of their own groups, a miracle known as in-group bias. The term originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

Henri Tajfel: The in-grouping and out-group concepts originate from social identity theory, which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

In-group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for one's in-group over the out-grouping or anyone viewed as exterior the in-group. This can exist expressed in evaluation of others, linking, resource allotment of resources, and many other ways. A fundamental notion in understanding in-group/out-group biases is determining the psychological mechanism that drives the bias. One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to improve self-esteem. That is individuals will find a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their grouping is superior.

Intergroup aggression is any behavior intended to harm another person because he or she is a member of an out group. Intergroup assailment is a by product of in-grouping bias, in that if the beliefs of the in-grouping are challenged or if the in-group feels threatened, so they will limited aggression toward the out-group. The major motive for intergroup assailment is the perception of a conflict of interest betwixt in-grouping and out-grouping. The way the aggression is justified is through dehumanizing the out-group, because the more than the out-group is dehumanized the "less they deserve the humane treatment enjoined past universal norms. "

French Stereotypes: Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization nigh a grouping of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of actual variation amidst the members.

The out-group homogeneity issue is one'south perception of out-group members as more like to one another than are in-group members, due east.k. "they are alike; nosotros are diverse. " The out-group homogeneity result has been found using a wide variety of different social groups, from political and racial groups to age and gender groups. Perceivers tend to have impressions about the variety or variability of group members around those central tendencies or typical attributes of those group members. Thus, out-group stereotypicality judgments are overestimated, supporting the view that out-grouping stereotypes are over-generalizations In an experiment testing out-grouping homogeneity, researchers revealed that people of other races are perceived to look more akin than members of one's own race. When white students were shown faces of a few white and a few blackness individuals, they later more accurately recognized white faces they had seen and often falsely recognized black faces not seen earlier. The opposite results were found when subjects consisted of blackness individuals.

Prejudice is a hostile or negative mental attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group. There are 3 components. The kickoff is the affective component, representing both the type of emotion linked with the attitude and the severity of the attitude. The second is a cognitive component, involving beliefs and thoughts that brand up the attitude. The 3rd is a behavioral component, relating to ane's deportment – people practise not simply hold attitudes, they act on them besides. Prejudice primarily refers to a negative attitude most others, although i tin besides have a positive prejudice in favor of something. Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization near a grouping of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to virtually all members of the group, regardless of bodily variation amid the members.

Reference Groups

Sociologists call any grouping that individuals employ every bit a standard for evaluating themselves and their own beliefs a reference group.

Learning Objectives

Explain the purpose of a reference group

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• Social comparison theory argues that individuals use comparisons with others to proceeds accurate cocky-evaluations and larn how to ascertain the cocky. A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an private or some other group is compared.
• Reference groups provide the benchmarks and dissimilarity needed for comparison and evaluation of grouping and personal characteristics.
• Robert One thousand. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the private aspires.

Fundamental Terms

• cocky-identity: a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an private'south perception of "self" in relation to whatsoever number of characteristics, such as academics and non academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
• social part: it is a prepare of connected behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation.
• reference group: it is a concept referring to a group to which an private or some other group is compared.

Social comparison theory is centered on the conventionalities that at that place is a drive within individuals to gain accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their own opinions and define the cocky by comparing themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference grouping. A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Sociologists call any group that individuals use equally a standard for evaluating themselves and their ain beliefs a reference group.

Reference groups are used in order to evaluate and determine the nature of a given individual or other grouping'due south characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to relate himself or herself psychologically. Reference groups go the private'south frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of cocky. It is important for determining a person's self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. These groups become the basis of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating ane's appearance and performance.

Robert Thou. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their function performance, aspirations and ambitions. A reference group tin either exist from a membership group or non-membership grouping.

An example of a reference group is a grouping of people who have a certain level of abundance. For example, an private in the U.Southward. with an annual income of $80,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares himself to those in the heart of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a twelvemonth. If, nonetheless, the same person considers the relevant reference group to exist those in the height 0.1% of households in the U.S., those making $1.half dozen one thousand thousand or more, then the individual's income of $eighty,000 would make him or her seem rather poor.

Reference group: Reference groups provide the benchmarks and contrast needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.

Reference grouping: Reference groups get the private's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, knowledge, and ideas of self.

Social Networks

A social network is a social structure between actors, connecting them through various social familiarities.

Learning Objectives

Diagram, in miniature, your social networks using nodes and ties

Primal Takeaways

Fundamental Points

• The written report of social networks is called both "social network analysis" and "social network theory ".
• Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the private actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships betwixt the actors.
• In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential handling and cooperation between individuals and groups.
• The rule of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to well-nigh 150 members.
• The modest world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the concatenation of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to some other arbitrary person anywhere in the globe is mostly short.
• Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.
• Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom one does not interact.

Key Terms

• node: They are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
• social majuscule: The good will, sympathy, and connections created by social interaction within and betwixt social networks.

A social network is a social construction between actors, either individuals or organizations. It indicates the means in which they are connected through various social familiarities, ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds. The report of social networks is called both "social network analysis" and "social network theory. " Research in a number of academic fields has demonstrated that social networks operate on many levels, from families upwards to the level of nations, and play a critical function in determining the manner problems are solved, organizations are run, and the caste to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals. Sociologists are interested in social networks considering of their influence on and importance for the individual. Social networks are the basic tools used by individuals to run into other people, recreate, and to find social support.

Social Network Analogy: An example of a social network diagram

Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the private actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its nearly simple course, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties betwixt the nodes beingness studied. The network tin also be used to determine the social majuscule of private actors. In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation betwixt individuals and groups.

The dominion of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is limited to well-nigh 150 members. The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in sociology and particularly anthropology of the maximum size of a hamlet. The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one capricious person to another arbitrary person anywhere in the world is more often than not short. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase "six degrees of separation" after a 1967 small world experiment by psychologist Stanley Milgram that plant that two random U.Southward. citizens were connected by an boilerplate of vi acquaintances. Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an private who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom i does non collaborate. Somebody who is seen daily on the train or at the gym, but with whom i does not otherwise communicate, is an case of a familiar stranger. If such individuals meet in an unfamiliar setting, for case, while travelling, they are more than probable to introduce themselves than would perfect strangers, since they have a groundwork of shared experiences.

Studies

Recent inquiry suggests that the social networks of Americans are shrinking, and more and more than people accept no close confidants or people with whom they tin share their most intimate thoughts. In 1985, the mean network size of individuals in the United States was two.94 people. Networks declined by virtually an unabridged confidant by 2004, to 2.08 people. Almost half, 46.3% of Americans, say they take only one or no confidants with whom they can discuss important matters. The most oftentimes occurring response to the question of how many confidants 1 has was cipher in 2004.

Online Communities

On the Net, social interactions can occur in online communities that preclude the need to exist face-to-face.

Learning Objectives

Discuss at to the lowest degree three central features of online communities

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• An online customs is a virtual customs that exists online and whose members enable its beingness through taking office in membership rituals.
• An online customs can take the grade of an information arrangement where anyone can mail service content, such as a bulletin board system or ane where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs.
• Toll plays a role in all aspects and stages for online communities. Fairly cheap and easily attainable technologies and programs have too influenced the increase in establishment of online communities.

Key Terms

• information arrangement: Any data processing system, either manual or computerized
• Online communities: Information technology is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual.
• blog: A website in the class of an ongoing journal; a blog.

An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership rituals. An online community can take the form of an information system where anyone can mail service content, such as a bulletin lath organization or one where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs. Online communities accept also go a supplemental grade of communication between people who know each other primarily in real life. Many means are used in social software separately or in combination, including text-based chat rooms and forums that use vocalisation, video text, or avatars.

The Development of Online Communities

The idea of a customs is not a new concept. What is new, even so, is transferring information technology over into the online world. A community was previously defined equally a grouping from a unmarried location. If you lot lived in the designated area, you became a office of that customs. Interaction betwixt community members was done primarily face-to-face and in a social setting. This definition for customs no longer applies. In the online globe, social interactions no longer have to exist face up-to-face or based on proximity. Instead, they can be with literally anyone, anywhere. At that place is a set of values to consider when developing an online customs. Some of these values include: opportunity, teaching, civilization, republic, human services, equality within the economy, information, sustainability, and advice.

Cost plays a office in all aspects and stages for online communities. Adequately cheap and hands attainable technologies and programs take too influenced the increase in establishment of online communities. While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such as certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are free to users such as the social networks Facebook and Twitter. Considering of deregulation and increased Cyberspace access, the popularity of online communities has escalated. Online communities provide instant gratification, entertainment, and learning.

Building Online Communities

Every online community has a distinct gear up of members who participate differently. A lurker observes the customs and viewing content, but does not add to the community content or discussion. A novice engages the community, starts to provide content, and tentatively interacts in a few discussions. A regular consistently adds to the community discussion and content and interacts with other users. A leader is recognized every bit a veteran participant, connecting with regulars to make higher concepts and ideas. Finally, an elder leaves the community for a diversity of reasons. For instance, the elderberry might feel a alter in interests or lack the time to stay connected.

Studies

In 2001, consultants at McKinsey & Company did a study where they found that only 2% of transaction site customers returned after their kickoff buy. In contrast, 60% of new online communities users began using and visiting the sites regularly after their first experiences. Online communities have changed the game for retail firms, as they have forced them to change their business organization strategies.

Facebook: While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such as certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are free to users such as social networks Facebook and Twitter.

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